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Arguments for God's Existence and the Problem of Evil

Ontological Arguments: The A Priori Proofs

What is Ontology?

Ontological arguments seek to prove God’s existence purely through reasoning about the concept of God, generally starting from the idea of God as a maximally great or perfect being. These are a priori arguments, meaning they do not rely on empirical evidence but on logical analysis.

St. Anselm's Maximal Being

Anselm defines God as "that than which nothing greater can be conceived." He argues:

1

Mental Existence

God exists at least in the understanding (in our minds).
2

Reality is Greater

If God exists only in the mind, then a greater being could be conceived — one existing in reality too, since existence in reality is greater than mere mental existence.
3

Contradiction

Therefore, if God did not exist in reality, God would not be the greatest conceivable being, contradicting the definition.
4

Conclusion

Hence, God must exist in reality.

Descartes' Argument

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Descartes’ Claim: Descartes also argued a version of the ontological argument using the idea of God as a supremely perfect being. He claimed that existence is inseparable from the idea of a supremely perfect being, meaning God’s non-existence is contradictory. He emphasized that necessary existence is part of God’s essence.

Malcolm's Modal Argument

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Norman Malcolm: Malcolm reformulated the argument to claim that God’s existence is either impossible or necessary. Since God’s existence cannot be impossible if the concept is coherent, it must be necessary. This argument focuses on the modal status of God’s existence, emphasizing necessity rather than contingent existence.

Criticisms of Ontological Proofs

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Gaunilo’s ‘Perfect Island’ Objection: Gaunilo, a contemporary of Anselm, argued that by Anselm’s logic, we could conceive of a perfect island then claim it must exist, revealing a flaw in the argument—that existence is not a predicate or property.
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Kant’s Objection: Immanuel Kant famously argued that existence is not a predicate or a property that adds something to the concept of a thing. Saying "God exists" does not add to the concept of God but only posits the instantiation of the concept. Hence, ontological arguments fail because they treat existence as a perfection.
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Empiricist Critiques (Hume): Empiricists reject a priori arguments like ontological arguments, insisting that existence claims require empirical evidence. Hume argued that we cannot define things into existence.

Teleological Arguments (Design)

Purpose and Order

These arguments infer the existence of God from the apparent order, purpose, and design in the world, often using analogy or inductive reasoning. The goal is to move from the complexity we observe to an intelligent designer.

William Paley's Case

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If I found a watch on a heath, what would I conclude about its origin?
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Paley famously used the analogy of finding a watch on a heath: the watch’s complexity and purpose imply a watchmaker. Similarly, the complexity and purposeful order of the universe indicate a divine Creator.

Richard Swinburne: Temporal Order

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Beyond Structure: Swinburne extends the argument by emphasizing temporal order and regularity, the laws of nature functioning consistently over time, as evidence of design. He uses inductive reasoning to claim that God’s existence is the best explanation for the uniformity and order in the universe.

Weaknesses in the Design Inference

1

Hume’s Objections

Hume points out problems with the analogy’s strength, the presence of disorder and imperfections in the universe, and that the argument is inductive, thus probabilistic not conclusive.
2

Spatial Disorder Problem

Both Hume and Paley noted that the natural world contains disorder that challenges the argument that it was designed for a good purpose.
3

Argument from a Unique Case

The universe is a unique case without a comparison class, making inductive reasoning less certain.
4

Is God the Best Explanation?

Alternatives such as chance, natural processes, or multiple designers challenge the argument's inference to God as sole or best explanation.

Cosmological Arguments

Necessary First Cause

Cosmological arguments rely on causation and the existence of the universe to argue for God as necessary first cause. These arguments move from observation (a posteriori) to a necessary conclusion.

The Kalam Temporal Cause

This argument focuses on temporal causation:

1

Premise A

Everything that begins to exist has a cause.
2

Premise B

The universe began to exist.
3

Conclusion

Therefore, the universe has a cause.
4

Inference

This cause is argued to be God, who is uncaused and powerful enough to create the universe.

Aquinas' Three Ways

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1st Way (Motion)

Things are in motion, and any motion must be caused by something else. There cannot be an infinite regress of movers, so there must be a First Mover, God.
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2nd Way (Efficient Causes)

Every effect has a cause; there cannot be an infinite causal chain, so there is a First Cause, God.
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3rd Way (Contingency)

Things exist contingently (could not exist), so there must be a necessary being that causes contingent beings, which is God.

Criticisms of Causation

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Infinite Regress: Is it possible that the chain or series of causes/universes extends infinitely, undermining the need for a first cause?
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Fallacy of Composition: Bertrand Russell and others argued the fallacy occurs when assuming that what is true of parts (everything has a cause) applies to the whole (the universe as a whole has a cause).
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Hume’s Objection to Causation: Hume questioned causal principles as assumptions, pointing out we never observe causation beyond constant conjunction.
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Impossibility of a Necessary Being: Hume and Russell dispute the coherence of a necessary being or finding the universe needing such an explanation.

The Problem of Evil

The Incoherence Challenge

This challenges the coherence of God’s omniscience, omnipotence, and omnibenevolence in light of evil’s existence. This remains a central challenge for the metaphysics of God, testing how we understand divine attributes and their compatibility with reality.

Defining the Conflict

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Moral Evil

Evil caused by free agents’ immoral actions (e.g., murder).
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Natural Evil

Suffering caused by nature (e.g., earthquakes).
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Logical Problem

Claims that the coexistence of an omnipotent, omniscient, omnibenevolent God and evil is logically contradictory.
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Evidential Problem

Claims the amount, kinds, and seeming gratuitousness of evil make God’s existence improbable.

The Free Will Defence (Alvin Plantinga)

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RESPONSES: Argues God gave humans free will, which makes moral evil possible but necessary for meaningful freedom. There is no logical contradiction between God and evil because God could not create free creatures who never choose evil.

The Soul-Making Theodicy (John Hick)

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The Purpose of Suffering: Claims evil is necessary to develop virtues and character (“soul-making”). Suffering aids spiritual growth and is compatible with a benevolent God.

Unresolved Dilemmas

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Natural Evil Explanation

HOW TO EXPLAIN NATURAL EVIL? IS IT NECESSARY FOR SOUL-MAKING?
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Free Will Sufficiency

DOES FREE WILL DEFENCE FULLY REMOVE THE PROBLEM OF EVIL?
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Gratuitous Evil

IS GRATUITOUS EVIL TRULY GRATUITOUS OR BEYOND HUMAN UNDERSTANDING?
Ontological Argument Deck
Term
Ontological Argument

What is the ontological argument?

Answer
Definition

An a priori argument proving God's existence through the concept of God as a maximally great or perfect being.

Term
First Formulator

Who first formulated the ontological argument?

Answer
Person

St. Anselm.

Term
Anselm's God Definition

What is Anselm's definition of God?

Answer
Definition

'That than which nothing greater can be conceived.'

Term
Main Idea

What is the main idea behind Anselm’s argument?

Answer
Explanation

If God exists only in the mind, a greater being could be conceived—one existing in reality—so God must exist in reality.

Term
Descartes' Variant

How does Descartes’ ontological argument differ?

Answer
Difference

It emphasizes necessary existence as part of God's essence.

Term
Malcolm's Contribution

What is Norman Malcolm’s contribution to the ontological argument?

Answer
Contribution

God’s existence is either impossible or necessary; since impossible is rejected, God’s existence is necessary.

Term
Gaunilo Objection

What is Gaunilo’s 'Perfect Island' objection?

Answer
Objection

It claims Anselm’s logic could wrongly prove a perfect island must exist, showing a flaw in treating existence as a property.

Term
Kant's Criticism

What did Kant argue about existence in ontological arguments?

Answer
Criticism

Existence is not a predicate or property that adds to a concept.

Term
Empiricist Rejection

Why do empiricists like Hume reject ontological arguments?

Answer
Rejection Reason

They argue existence claims require empirical evidence, not just definitions.

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🌸 Ontological Arguments Quiz

1. Who originally formulated the ontological argument?

Anselm first presented the argument defining God as “that than which nothing greater can be conceived.”

2. According to Anselm, why must God exist in reality?

Anselm argued that if God existed only in the mind, a greater being could be conceived, contradicting God’s definition.

3. What is Kant’s main objection to ontological arguments?

Kant argued that existence does not add to the concept’s content, so existence cannot prove God’s perfection.

4. Which philosopher pointed out that ontological reasoning could be misused to prove the existence of a perfect island?

Gaunilo, a contemporary of Anselm, used the perfect island analogy to challenge Anselm’s argument.

5. Norman Malcolm’s ontological argument focuses on which modal concept?

Malcolm argued God’s existence is necessarily true or impossible, and since impossibility is rejected, necessity remains.

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