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Moral Philosophy (Ethics)

Core Definitions and Scope

The Nature of Ethics

Moral philosophy (ethics) analyzes the nature of morality, moral judgments, and ethical concepts. It asks questions like: What makes actions right or wrong? On what basis should we make moral decisions? Is morality objective or subjective? Moral philosophy is divided into normative ethics, meta-ethics, and applied ethics.

Key Terms and Concepts

Understanding the specialized vocabulary is essential for navigating moral debates and philosophical texts.

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Morality

Distinction between right and wrong behavior.
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Normative Ethics

Criteria for what is morally right or wrong.
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Meta-Ethics

Explores the nature and meaning of moral judgments.
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Applied Ethics

Practical application of principles to real-life issues.

Normative Ethical Theories: Overview

1

Consequentialism

Rightness depends solely on consequences (e.g., Utilitarianism).
2

Deontology

Focuses on duty, rules, and intrinsic rightness (Kant).
3

Virtue Ethics

Focuses on character traits and moral development (Aristotle).

1. Consequentialism & Utilitarianism

Focus on Outcome

The rightness or wrongness of actions depends solely on their consequences. Utilitarianism is the most prominent form, championed by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. The principle of utility requires maximising overall happiness or pleasure and minimizing pain.

Utilitarianism: Analysis

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AdvantagesImpartial, considers overall well-being, flexible. Includes Act utilitarianism (judges individual acts) and Rule utilitarianism (judges general rules).
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CriticismsCan justify intuitively wrong acts (e.g., sacrificing one to save many), demanding, difficulties measuring happiness.

2. Deontology & Kant

Focus on Duty

An ethical theory focusing on duty and rules rather than consequences. Immanuel Kant is the key figure. Emphasizes acting according to maxims that can be universal laws (The Categorical Imperative). Moral actions are those done from duty, not inclination. Kant also stresses treating persons as ends in themselves, never merely as a means.

Deontology: Analysis

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AdvantagesRespects human dignity, provides high moral consistency, and sets clear, rational, universal laws.
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CriticismsRigidity, difficulty handling conflicts between duties, tendency to completely ignore relevant consequences.

3. Virtue Ethics & Aristotle

Focus on Character

Focuses on character traits (virtues) and moral development rather than rules or consequences. Originates from Aristotle. Moral life aims at eudaimonia (flourishing or well-being). Emphasis is on practical wisdom (phronesis) and habituation.

Virtue Ethics: Analysis

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AdvantagesContext sensitivity, emphasizes moral character development over minimum adherence to rules. Focuses on the whole life.
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CriticismsLacks specific action guidance in complex scenarios, susceptible to cultural relativism regarding what constitutes a virtue.

Meta-Ethics: Meaning and Nature

Meta-ethics explores the foundation of moral thought, answering 'what is morality?'

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Moral Realism

Moral facts exist objectively.
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Anti-Realism

Denies objective moral facts.
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Cognitivism

Moral statements express beliefs that can be true/false (truth-apt).
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Non-Cognitivism

Moral statements express emotions or prescriptions (e.g., Emotivism).

The Is-Ought Problem (Hume)

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So, we observed that 'is' (descriptive fact) does not automatically imply 'ought' (moral obligation)?
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Exactly. David Hume argued there is a gap. Justifying moral claims requires philosophically bridging the gap between descriptive and normative language.

Moral Dilemmas and Paradoxes

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Moral Conflict: A moral dilemma arises when two moral duties conflict and cannot all be fulfilled. The Trolley Problem is a famous paradox testing utilitarian vs deontological intuitions.

Responsibility and Free Will

Moral responsibility requires free will: the capacity to act otherwise and understand consequences.

C

Compatibilism

Free will is compatible with determinism.
L

Libertarianism

Free will exists and is incompatible with determinism.
H

Hard Determinism

Determinism is true; therefore, there is no free will.

Key Figures in Moral Philosophy

A

Aristotle

Virtue ethics, Eudaimonia, Phronesis.
K

Kant

Deontological ethics, Categorical Imperative.
M

Bentham & Mill

Foundational proponents of Utilitarianism.
H

David Hume

The Is-Ought problem, Emotivism, Moral skepticism.

Philosophical Analysis Checklist

Students should aim to master the following analytical skills in this domain:

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Define Concepts

Define central moral concepts clearly.
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Distinguish Branches

Distinguish normative, meta, and applied ethics.
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Analyse Theories

Identify and critique ethical theories’ strengths and weaknesses.
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Evaluate Dilemmas

Evaluate moral dilemmas and paradoxes (e.g., Trolley Problem).
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Apply Coherently

Apply moral theories to ethical questions coherently.
Moral Philosophy (Ethics) Deck
Term
Moral Philosophy (Ethics)

What is moral philosophy (ethics)?

Answer
Definition

The study of morality, moral judgments, and ethical concepts.

Term
Main Branches

What are the three main branches of moral philosophy?

Answer
Branches

Normative ethics, meta-ethics, and applied ethics.

Term
Morality

Define morality.

Answer
Definition

Principles concerning right and wrong or good and bad behavior.

Term
Consequentialism

What is consequentialism?

Answer
Definition

An ethical theory where the rightness of actions depends on their consequences.

Term
Key Figures in Utilitarianism

Who are key figures in utilitarianism?

Answer
Philosophers

Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill.

Term
Utilitarianism Principle

What principle does utilitarianism follow?

Answer
Principle

Maximizing overall happiness and minimizing pain.

Term
Act vs Rule Utilitarianism

What differentiates act utilitarianism from rule utilitarianism?

Answer
Difference

Act utilitarianism judges individual acts; rule utilitarianism judges rules that generally produce the best outcomes.

Term
Deontology

What is the focus of deontology?

Answer
Focus

Duty and rules rather than consequences.

Term
Deontological Philosopher

Who is the main philosopher associated with deontology?

Answer
Philosopher

Immanuel Kant.

Term
Categorical Imperative

What is the Categorical Imperative?

Answer
Definition

Act only according to maxims that can be universal laws.

Term
Virtue Ethics

What does virtue ethics emphasize?

Answer
Emphasis

Moral character and virtues like courage and justice.

Term
Philosopher and Virtue Ethics

Which philosopher is linked to virtue ethics?

Answer
Philosopher

Aristotle.

Term
Meta-Ethics

What is meta-ethics concerned with?

Answer
Concern

The nature, meaning, and justification of moral terms and judgments.

Term
Moral Realism

What is moral realism?

Answer
Belief

The belief that moral facts exist objectively and independently.

Term
Moral Anti-Realism

What is moral anti-realism?

Answer
Belief

The belief that morality is subjective or relative, not objective.

Term
Is-Ought Problem

What is the is-ought problem?

Answer
Problem

The difficulty of deriving prescriptive moral statements from descriptive facts (David Hume).

Term
Moral Dilemma

What constitutes a moral dilemma?

Answer
Definition

A situation involving conflicting moral duties that cannot all be fulfilled.

Term
Moral Responsibility

What is moral responsibility linked to?

Answer
Link

Free will—the capacity to act otherwise and understand consequences.

Term
Views on Free Will

Name two opposing views on free will.

Answer
Views

Compatibilism (free will compatible with determinism) and libertarianism (free will incompatible with determinism).

Term
Criticism of Consequentialism

What is the main criticism of consequentialism?

Answer
Criticism

It can justify morally questionable acts and is demanding in calculations.

Term
Advantage of Deontology

What is a key advantage of deontology?

Answer
Advantage

Respects human dignity and provides consistent moral rules.

Term
Challenge for Virtue Ethics

What is a key challenge for virtue ethics?

Answer
Challenge

Lack of clear guidance on specific actions.

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🌸 Moral Philosophy (Ethics) Quiz

1. Which branch of moral philosophy deals with the criteria for what is morally right or wrong?

Normative ethics focuses on establishing moral standards and guidelines.

2. What ethical theory argues that the morality of an action depends entirely on its outcomes?

Consequentialism judges actions by their consequences.

3. Which philosopher is most closely associated with the Categorical Imperative?

Kant developed the Categorical Imperative as the basis for deontological ethics.

4. According to utilitarianism, one should:

Utilitarianism is a form of consequentialism focused on overall utility.

5. What is a main criticism of virtue ethics?

Virtue ethics emphasizes character, which can leave specific action decisions uncertain.

6. What is moral realism?

Moral realism holds that moral truths exist regardless of human opinions.

7. The is-ought problem highlights the difficulty of:

Hume’s is-ought problem shows a logical gap between ‘what is’ and ‘what ought to be.’

📊 Results

  • Notes and Quiz
  • PHILOSOPHY
  • A Level
  • Ethics
  • AQA