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The Cognitive System: Memory

Defining Memory Processes

Core Definition

Memory is the process by which we take in, store, and later recall information. To fully understand how memory works, it helps to break down its structure and the different stages involved. Information processing in memory includes input (how we get information), processing (how we work with it), and output (how we express or use what we remember). This foundational understanding helps explain how memories are formed and used.

The Stages of Information Flow

1

Input

Input refers to the information that enters our memory system from the environment. This can come through our senses – what we see, hear, touch, taste, or smell. For example, when you read a page in a book or listen in class, the sensory input is the stimuli entering your brain.
2

Processing

Processing is what happens to this input once it is received. This includes transformation, organization, and encoding into a form the brain can store. For example, if you’re trying to remember a phone number, you might repeat it to yourself, or think about the rhythm of the numbers to help remember them.
3

Output

Output is the action of recalling or using the information. When you answer a question in class, write an essay, or recognize a face, you are using output. This means retrieving the stored information and expressing it.

Core Memory Mechanisms

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Encoding

The process of converting information from sensory input into a form that can be held in memory. Encoding can happen visually, acoustically, or semantically. Good encoding makes it easier to remember information later.
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Storage

Refers to how encoded information is maintained over time in the brain. Memory storage involves holding information safely for short or long periods depending on the type of memory.
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Retrieval

Involves accessing stored information when needed. Retrieval is influenced by how well the memory was encoded and stored, as well as external cues like context or similar memories.

STM vs LTM Overview

Memory Classification

Memory is commonly divided into two main types based on duration and capacity: short-term memory and long-term memory.

Duration and Capacity Comparison

Type Capacity Duration Example
STM Limited (around 7 items) < 30 seconds (without rehearsal) Remembering a phone number just long enough to dial it.
LTM Vast—potentially unlimited Hours to an entire lifetime Knowledge of your friends’ names, facts learned in school.

Understanding Amnesia

Amnesia Definition

Amnesia is a condition where memory is impaired due to brain damage or trauma.

Amnesia Types: Before vs. After

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Retrograde Amnesia Means losing memories formed before the onset of amnesia. The person cannot recall events or information stored before the injury. New learning is preserved.
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Anterograde Amnesia The inability to form new long-term memories after the damage occurs, while older memories remain intact. Severe difficulty in creating new long-term memories.

Bartlett's Reconstructive Theory

Memory is Active

Bartlett challenged the idea that memory is like a film recorder, faithfully reproducing events. Instead, he suggested memory is active and reconstructive. This means memories are rebuilt during recall, influenced by our understanding and experiences.

The Role of Schemas

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Schemas Defined

Bartlett introduced the idea of schemas—mental frameworks built from previous knowledge and experiences. Schemas help us make sense of new information by fitting it into existing cognitive structures.
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Schema Influence

When we remember something, we reconstruct it by filling gaps with schematic knowledge or by changing details to make sense. This can cause memory distortions.

Bartlett's Theory: Evaluation

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Strengths Explains why memories can be inaccurate or distorted. Recognizes the active role of meaning and prior knowledge in memory.
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Weaknesses Difficult to measure schemas directly or scientifically. Does not fully explain all types of memory errors.

Atkinson and Shiffrin's Model

Model Overview (1968)

This model offers a clear explanation of memory structure by dividing it into three components: sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

The Three Memory Stores

1

Sensory Register

This is the very first stage where sensory information enters memory. It holds information briefly (milliseconds to seconds) and has a large capacity because it captures all sensory input.
2

Short-term Memory (STM)

STM holds information you are consciously aware of. It has a limited capacity of about 7 items and a short duration, typically less than 30 seconds unless rehearsed.
3

Long-term Memory (LTM)

Information is transferred from STM to LTM through rehearsal. LTM has an unlimited capacity and duration, allowing you to store vast amounts of information for a long time.

Attention and Rehearsal

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Role of Attention: Attention is crucial for transferring information from the sensory register to STM. Without paying attention, sensory information is quickly lost.

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Role of Rehearsal: Rehearsal helps maintain information in STM long enough for it to transfer to LTM. Elaborative rehearsal is more effective for LTM storage than maintenance rehearsal.

Multi-Store Model: Evaluation

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Strengths Clearly explains different memory stores and how information passes between them. Supported by experimental research.
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Weaknesses Oversimplifies memory; for example, STM and LTM are more complex with subtypes and different functions. Does not explain all aspects of forgetting or retrieval failures. Emphasizes linear processing, while actual memory may be more dynamic.
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Memory Flashcards
Term
Memory

What is memory?

Answer
Definition

The process of taking in, storing, and recalling information.

Term
Three Stages of Information Processing

What are the three stages of information processing in memory?

Answer
Stages

Input, Processing, Output.

Term
Input

What does "Input" refer to in memory?

Answer
Definition

Information received through the senses from the environment.

Term
Encoding

Define Encoding in relation to memory.

Answer
Definition

Converting information into a form that can be stored.

Term
Short-Term Memory (STM)

What is Short-Term Memory (STM)?

Answer
Definition

Temporary memory store lasting up to 30 seconds with limited capacity.

Term
Long-Term Memory (LTM)

What is Long-Term Memory (LTM)?

Answer
Definition

Permanent memory store with unlimited capacity.

Term
Retrograde Amnesia

What is retrograde amnesia?

Answer
Definition

Loss of memories formed before brain damage.

Term
Anterograde Amnesia

What is anterograde amnesia?

Answer
Definition

Inability to form new long-term memories after brain damage.

Term
Theory of Reconstructive Memory

Who proposed the Theory of Reconstructive Memory?

Answer
Proponent

Bartlett (1932).

Term
Schemas

What are schemas?

Answer
Definition

Mental frameworks shaping how we understand and remember information.

Term
Multi-Store Model of Memory

Name the three stores in the Multi-Store Model of Memory.

Answer
Stores

Sensory register, Short-term memory, Long-term memory.

Term
Attention

What role does attention play in memory?

Answer
Role

It transfers information from sensory register to short-term memory.

Term
Rehearsal

How does rehearsal help in memory?

Answer
Function

Maintains information in STM and aids transfer to LTM.

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🧠 Memory Quiz

1. What is the primary role of encoding in memory?

Encoding transforms sensory information into a format that can be stored in the brain.

2. Which type of memory has a capacity typically limited to about 7 items?

STM holds a limited amount of information briefly, usually around 7 ± 2 items.

3. Retrograde amnesia affects:

Retrograde amnesia prevents recalling pre-injury memories but allows new memory formation.

4. True/False: The Multi-Store Model includes the sensory register, STM, and LTM.

The model clearly defines these three components as key stages of memory.

5. According to Bartlett’s Theory of Reconstructive Memory, memories are:

Bartlett emphasized that memory is reconstructive and influenced by prior knowledge.

📊 Results

  • Notes and Quiz
  • Psychology
  • GCSE
  • Memory
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