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Loftus and Palmer (1974): Reconstructive Memory

The Core Question

AIM

Loftus and Palmer (1974) aimed to investigate how the phrasing of questions (specifically the verb used) affects participants’ estimation of vehicle speed in a filmed car accident. This study tested the influence of leading questions on memory recall.

Study Design & Setup

1

Method & Design

A laboratory experiment was used, enabling controlled manipulation of the independent variable (verb used in the critical question) and measurement of its effect on speed estimates. Independent groups design.
2

Sample

45 American university students were divided equally into five groups of nine. The sample was a convenience sample.
3

Materials

Seven short film clips of varying car accidents (each 5 to 30 seconds in length). A questionnaire with critical question about the estimated speed of the cars, manipulated by verb.

Procedure Flow

1

Phase 1: Viewing and Questioning

Participants viewed several clips and answered a questionnaire. The critical question asked 'About how fast were the cars going when they [verb] each other?' Each group received a different verb.
2

Phase 2: Follow-up (Distortion Test)

In a follow-up variation, participants were asked a week later whether they saw broken glass, when none was present, testing memory distortion.

Results: Mean Speed Estimates (mph)

Verb Condition Average Speed (mph)
Smashed 40.8
Collided 39.3
Bumped 38.1
Hit 34.0
Contacted 31.8

Follow-up: Participants exposed to the word "smashed" were more likely to falsely recall seeing broken glass.

Conclusions & Impact

💡

Core Conclusion: Loftus and Palmer concluded that memory is reconstructive and susceptible to post-event information. Leading questions can alter a witness’s memory, affecting accuracy of testimony. This is crucial for legal contexts.

Methodology: Strengths vs Limitations

✅
StrengthsHigh internal validity through control of variables (lab setting). Ethical issues are minimal; participants were not put at risk.
❌
WeaknessesLow ecological validity since watching films differs from real life emotional involvement. The sample size was small and restricted to university students, limiting generalizability.

Key Cognitive Concepts

🧠

Reconstructive Memory

The fundamental cognitive theory that memory is not a perfect recording, but is rebuilt based on schemas and post-event input.
👁️‍🗨️

Eyewitness Testimony

The key area of focus. How reliable memory is when used as evidence in legal procedures.

Context in Cognitive Psychology

🤔
Is this the only way memory reliability is tested?
🦉
No. Grant et al. (1998) examined context-dependent memory, while Simons and Chabris (1999) focused on visual attention and inattention.

Applied Value and Relevance

Legal Impact

The study has high applied value in forensic psychology, impacting police interview methods and courtroom procedures to reduce wrongful convictions. It informed the use of neutral wording in legal questioning.
Loftus and Palmer (1974) Study Deck
Question
Main Aim

What was the main aim of Loftus and Palmer's 1974 study?

Answer
Explanation

To investigate how the phrasing of questions affects participants' estimation of vehicle speed in a car accident.

Question
Research Method

What research method was used in the study?

Answer
Method

A laboratory experiment.

Question
Independent Variable

What independent variable did Loftus and Palmer manipulate?

Answer
Variable

The verb used in the question (e.g., "smashed," "collided," "bumped," "hit," or "contacted").

Question
Participants

How many participants were in the study?

Answer
Number

45 American university students.

Question
Design

What was the design of the study?

Answer
Design Type

Independent groups design.

Question
Materials

What materials were used in the experiment?

Answer
Materials

Seven short film clips of car accidents and a questionnaire with a critical question about estimated speed.

Question
Follow-up Test

What was the follow-up test conducted a week later?

Answer
Test

Participants were asked if they saw broken glass, which was not present, to test for memory distortion.

Question
Highest Speed Verb

Which verb led to the highest speed estimates?

Answer
Verb

'Smashed.'

Question
Memory Conclusion

What conclusion did Loftus and Palmer draw about memory?

Answer
Conclusion

Memory is reconstructive and susceptible to being altered by leading questions.

Question
Legal Importance

Why is this study important for legal contexts?

Answer
Importance

It shows how eyewitness testimony can be influenced and potentially inaccurate due to question wording.

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🧠 Loftus and Palmer (1974) Quiz

1. What was the independent variable in Loftus and Palmer’s study?

The verb was manipulated to see how it affected speed estimates.

2. Which verb led to the highest average speed estimates?

“Smashed” implied more severe impact, leading participants to estimate higher speeds.

3. What type of experimental design was used in the study?

Different participants experienced different conditions (verbs).

4. What effect did the verbal phrasing of questions have on memory?

Leading questions affected participants’ memory, including false recall of broken glass.

5. What was a major ethical concern of the study?

Participants were not harmed or put at risk.

📊 Results

  • Notes and Quiz
  • Psychology
  • A Level
  • Communication
  • OCR