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The Self: Identity, Congruence, and Traits

The Core Concept

What defines 'The Self'?

The self is a central concept in psychology that refers to the way individuals understand who they are. It includes self-awareness, self-identity, and ideas about personality and abilities. The self is complex and made up of different components that develop throughout life.

Lewis (1990): Two Components of Self

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Existential Self This is the most basic awareness that “I exist” and am separate from others and the environment. It develops early in infancy.
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Categorical Self This involves knowing that you belong to categories such as “boy,” “tall,” or “student.” It introduces conceptual understanding based on observable attributes.

Rogers (1959): Humanistic Self Concepts

Carl Rogers presented key ideas about how the self develops and functions, highlighting the dynamic nature of personal identity.

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Self-image

The way you see yourself currently (perceptions, thoughts, feelings).
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Ideal Self

The person you would like to be – your goals and aspirations.
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Congruence

When your self-image and ideal self closely match; feeling authentic.
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Self-actualisation

The process of becoming the best version of yourself, fulfilling your potential.

Erikson (1959): Key Identity Stages

Erikson proposed eight psychosocial stages, each involving a crisis essential for healthy identity resolution.

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Industry vs. Inferiority

Achieving competence builds self-esteem (School age).
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Identity vs. Role Confusion

Key stage for forming personal identity, values, and goals (Adolescence).
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Intimacy vs. Isolation

Forming close relationships is essential to a stable identity (Young adulthood).

Baumeister (2008): Belief in Free Will

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Responsibility and Motivation: When people believe they have control over their actions (free will), they are more likely to act responsibly and resist temptations. If reduced, unethical behavior may increase.

Rogers (1951): Positive Regard

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Unconditional Positive Regard Receiving acceptance regardless of behaviour. This supports healthy self-esteem and congruence.
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Conditional Positive Regard Receiving acceptance only when behaving in ways others approve. This can be damaging, creating self-worth based on meeting others’ conditions.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (Summary)

The motivational stages related to personality and self-development, culminating in potential fulfillment.

BASE

Physiological Needs

Food, shelter, and basic survival necessities.
MID

Love & Belonging/Esteem

Requires respect, self-esteem, and social connections.
TOP

Self-Actualisation

The achievement of full potential (growth and creativity).

Influences on the Self

The evolving self is shaped by the interaction of internal and external factors.

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Temperament (Internal)

Innate personality traits observable from infancy (e.g., activity level). Genetics largely influence temperament.
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Experience (External)

Life events, relationships, successes, failures, and societal feedback.

Allport (1936): Types of Traits

Allport distinguished traits based on their dominance and influence on an individual's life.

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Cardinal Traits

Dominant traits that define an individual’s entire life, e.g., Mother Teresa’s kindness.
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Central Traits

General characteristics found in everyone to some degree, like honesty or sociability.
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Secondary Traits

Situational traits only appearing in some circumstances, e.g., impatience under stress.

Trait Theory: Strengths vs Weaknesses

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Strengths Provides measurable, quantifiable traits; helps predict behaviours; traits are consistent over time.
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Weaknesses May overlook situational influences on behaviour; personality can be more fluid than static traits suggest.

Measuring Personality

Standard methods used to identify personality patterns and predict behaviors.

Type Method Example Focus
Scales Questionnaire Big Five Inventory Traits (Quantifiable)
Types Categorical Type A vs Type B Groupings (Characteristics)
The Self Deck
Term
Existential Self (Lewis, 1990)

What is the existential self according to Lewis (1990)?

Answer
Definition

The basic awareness of 'I exist' and being separate from others and the environment.

Term
Categorical Self

What does the categorical self involve?

Answer
Definition

Understanding oneself as belonging to categories with attributes, like 'boy,' 'shy,' or 'student.'

Term
Self-Image (Rogers)

Define self-image in Rogers' theory.

Answer
Definition

How you currently perceive and feel about yourself.

Term
Self-Esteem

What is self-esteem?

Answer
Definition

The value or worth you place on yourself based on your self-image.

Term
Ideal Self

What does ‘ideal self’ represent?

Answer
Definition

The person you aspire to be, including goals and aspirations.

Term
Congruence (Rogers)

What is congruence in Rogers’ theory?

Answer
Definition

When your self-image matches your ideal self, leading to authenticity and satisfaction.

Term
Incongruence

What happens during incongruence?

Answer
Definition

Self-image does not match ideal self, causing psychological distress.

Term
Erikson’s Stages

What is the main focus of Erikson’s stages?

Answer
Definition

Psychosocial conflicts that shape identity through eight stages from infancy to old age.

Term
Belief in Free Will (Baumeister, 2008)

According to Baumeister (2008), why is belief in free will important?

Answer
Explanation

It promotes motivation, responsibility, and ethical behaviour.

Term
Unconditional Positive Regard

What is unconditional positive regard?

Answer
Definition

Acceptance given without conditions, supporting healthy self-esteem.

Term
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

What did Maslow’s hierarchy of needs explain about self?

Answer
Explanation

Motivation progresses from basic needs to self-actualisation, fulfilling potential.

Term
Temperament and Experience

How do temperament and experience influence the self?

Answer
Explanation

Temperament provides innate traits; experience shapes self-concept through life events.

Term
Personality Scales

What are personality scales used for?

Answer
Purpose

Measuring personality traits quantitatively, like the Big Five inventory.

Term
Cardinal Traits (Allport)

What are cardinal traits according to Allport?

Answer
Definition

Dominant traits that define a person’s life.

Term
Criticism of Trait Theory

What criticism exists of trait theory?

Answer
Criticism

It may ignore situational influences, seeing personality as too static.

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🌸 The Self Quiz

1. According to Lewis (1990), which self represents the fundamental awareness of existence?

The existential self is the basic sense of “I exist,” distinct from the categorical self which involves categorizing oneself.

2. What term did Rogers use for the alignment between the self-image and ideal self?

Congruence refers to close matching, leading to feelings of authenticity and satisfaction.

3. True or False: Erikson believed identity development is completed in adolescence.

Erikson proposed a lifelong process with eight psychosocial stages affecting identity.

4. Baumeister’s research suggests that belief in free will encourages:

Belief in free will fosters responsibility and better self-regulation.

5. Which of the following is an example of conditional positive regard?

Conditional positive regard depends on meeting others’ expectations for acceptance.

6. Maslow’s highest level in the hierarchy of needs is:

Self-actualisation is achieving full potential, at the top of Maslow’s hierarchy.

7. What did Allport call traits that are dominant and define a person’s life?

Cardinal traits are dominant and shape an individual’s entire life direction.

📊 Results

  • Notes and Quiz
  • Psychology
  • GCSE
  • Self
  • EDEXCEL